N-Propanol

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n-Propanol (CAS 71-23-8; EC 200-746-9; molecular formula CH3CH2CH2OH; molecular weight 60.10 g/mol) is the unbranched C3 primary alcohol with normal boiling point 97.2 °C, density 0.804 g/cm³ at 20 °C, and closed-cup flash point 23 °C. Industrial production is tied directly to propionaldehyde availability through the oxo/hydroformylation route: ethylene, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen are converted to propionaldehyde in an oxo loop, and the isolated aldehyde is subsequently hydrogenated over a supported metal catalyst to the alcohol. Direct hydration of propylene is not a commercial route to n-propanol because the Markovnikov addition yields isopropanol as the dominant product, and the small n-propanol streams recovered from methanol synthesis fusel oils, ethanol fermentation by-products, and exploratory glycerol hydrogenolysis do not provide primary global supply. A modern integrated site therefore includes syngas purification, ethylene desulfurisation, low-pressure or high-pressure hydroformylation, aldehyde distillation, fixed-bed hydrogenation with hydrogen recycle, and a purification train that must manage the n-propanol–water minimum-boiling azeotrope. Propionaldehyde is thermally reactive under base or heat; storage of crude aldehyde above 15 °C or in presence of water above 0.5 wt% accelerates aldol self-condensation to 2-methyl-2-pentenal, which becomes a hydrogenation feedstock contaminant and a reboiler fouling precursor. This reactivity imposes short aldehyde hold-up time, low-temperature distillation, and immediate hydrogenation scheduling at integrated plants.Hydrogenation of propionaldehyde to n-propanol is performed commercially in liquid-full or trickle-bed fixed-bed reactors charged with nickel on silica/alumina, copper chromite, or palladium on alumina. The propionaldehyde feed is specified with propionaldehyde 99.0 wt% minimum, water 0.05 wt% maximum, acidity as propionic acid 0.01 wt% maximum, total sulfur 1 ppm maximum, and total chlorine 1 ppm maximum. Nickel-based systems are operated at inlet temperatures of 120 °C to 160 °C, total pressures of 2.0 MPa to 3.0 MPa, hydrogen-to-aldehyde molar ratios of 4:1 to 6:1, and liquid hourly space velocities of 0.3 h⁻¹ to 0.6 h⁻¹. Copper chromite systems run from 150 °C to 180 °C at 1.0 MPa to 2.5 MPa to limit ether formation; palladium systems operate from 80 °C to 120 °C at 0.5 MPa to 1.5 MPa but lose activity when carbon monoxide in recycle hydrogen exceeds 5 ppm. Catalyst pellets are 3–5 mm diameter, with trickle-bed length-to-diameter ratio 4:1 to 10:1; shorter beds exhibit gas-liquid channelling, and a pre-distribution zone of inert alumina is installed above the catalyst bed to equalise liquid flux. At commercial scale, axial temperature rise across the bed is usually 15–25 °C, and hot-spot excursions above 25 °C trigger automatic hydrogen quench or feed cut. Passivated nickel catalysts are activated before aldehyde introduction under hydrogen at 180–220 °C and 0.5–1.0 MPa for 8–16 h. Online process gas chromatographs with thermal conductivity detectors for hydrogen and flame ionisation detectors for organics sample reactor effluent every 5–10 min; if residual propionaldehyde exceeds 100 ppm for more than two consecutive samples, the liquid hourly space velocity or inlet temperature is raised within the specified window to recover conversion.Catalyst systemInlet temperatureTotal pressureLiquid hourly space velocityPrincipal limiting conditionNickel on silica/alumina120–160 °C2.0–3.0 MPa0.3–0.6 h⁻¹Aldol fouling above 165 °CCopper chromite150–180 °C1.0–2.5 MPa0.2–0.5 h⁻¹Ether formation at upper temperaturePalladium on alumina80–120 °C0.5–1.5 MPa0.5–1.0 h⁻¹Deactivation by carbon monoxide above 5 ppmThe limiting side chemistry is not only over-reduction. Propionaldehyde self-condensation competes with hydrogenation when local aldehyde concentration is high and hydrogen availability is low. Aldol coupling to 2-methyl-2-pentenal followed by hydrogenation yields 2-methylpentanal and 2-methylpentanol, heavy ends that accumulate in distillation bottoms. Ether formation through alcohol dehydration produces di-n-propyl ether, while ester formation produces propyl propionate; both appear as impurities requiring later removal. On nickel catalysts, selectivity to n-propanol remains above 99% only within a narrow temperature band of approximately ±5 °C around the optimum; excursions above 165 °C increase ether and ester make, and excursions below 110 °C allow aldehyde breakthrough. This processing window is maintained by tube-wall temperature control through circulating hot oil and by quench hydrogen injection at multiple bed levels. Basic nitrogen compounds are excluded from the aldehyde feed because amines accelerate aldol condensation even at millimolar concentrations. Water content above 0.5 wt% in aldehyde feed shifts azeotrope loads downstream and increases reboiler fouling; vendor technical bulletins therefore recommend stripping dissolved water from aldehyde before hydrogenation when ambient transfer lines exceed 60% relative humidity.Crude hydrogenation product contains n-propanol, water, dissolved hydrogen, residual propionaldehyde, di-n-propyl ether, propyl propionate, and aldol-derived heavy compounds. Separation begins in a light-ends column that rejects dissolved hydrogen and most of the residual aldehyde. Aqueous n-propanol forms a minimum-boiling azeotrope at 87.7 °C with 71.7 wt% alcohol at atmospheric pressure, so a simple distillation column cannot reduce water below the azeotropic composition; industrial drying is achieved by pressure-swing distillation, extractive distillation with a glycol entrainer, or molecular-sieve adsorption in the vapour phase. The heavy-ends column removes propyl propionate and 2-methylpentanol bottoms at reduced pressure, typically 35–45 kPa, to keep reboiler skin temperatures below 150 °C and extend run length between cleaning cycles. Molecular-sieve beds reduce final water to 0.05 wt% or lower, and a finishing condenser at 5–10 °C minimises vent losses of alcohol vapour. This sequence is operated with conductivity and Karl Fischer analysers at the product draw to ensure water and acidity limits are met without batch-to-batch drift.Rhodium-catalysed low-pressure hydroformylation is the dominant ethylene-to-propionaldehyde route in modern n-propanol supply chains. The reactor is a stirred tank or gas-liquid loop operating at 85–120 °C and 1.5–2.5 MPa, with rhodium in solution at 100–400 ppm and ligand-to-rhodium molar ratio of 50:1 to 200:1. Triphenylphosphine is used where wet process streams are present, while triphenylphosphite ligands give higher selectivity but are hydrolytically unstable; hydrolysis products form acidic species that attack downstream stainless steel and increase acidity in crude propionaldehyde. Ethylene conversion per pass is 85–95% with a CO:H₂ molar feed ratio of 1:1 to 1:1.2. Unconverted ethylene and excess syngas are recycled through a membrane or pressure-swing unit; purge is set to keep methane and nitrogen below 5 vol% in the recycle loop. Regioselectivity to propionaldehyde exceeds 90% in optimised loops, with the balance mainly propanol and heavies from aldehyde condensation. Fresh ethylene is treated with acetylene hydrogenation guard beds and molecular sieves so that acetylene is below 1 ppm, diolefins below 5 ppm, oxygen below 5 ppm, and sulfur below 0.5 ppm. Rhodium recycling from spent catalyst is integrated by organic-phase evaporation and resin adsorption, and chloride ingress above 1 ppm accelerates rhodium precipitation as insoluble chloro-carbonyl species. These thresholds define the practical boundary between low-pressure rhodium operation and high-pressure cobalt operation for propionaldehyde supply.Where a site still operates cobalt-catalysed high-pressure oxo, ethylene hydroformylation is carried out at 20–30 MPa and 150–180 °C using cobalt hydrocarbonyl HCo(CO)4 as the active catalyst. The high pressure is required to stabilise the cobalt carbonyl at reaction temperature, and the equipment is constructed of forged chromium-molybdenum steel with welded internals rather than loose seals. Sulfur tolerance is the main advantage: cobalt oxo can tolerate sulfur compounds up to 5 ppm, whereas low-pressure rhodium systems require sulfur below 0.5 ppm. Regioselectivity to propionaldehyde is lower than rhodium, and more of the ethylene is hydrogenated to ethane; the crude product therefore contains a larger heavy ends fraction and requires a more aggressive aldehyde distillation. After reaction, soluble cobalt carbonyls are removed by decobalting; oxidation or dilute acid treatment transfers cobalt to aqueous solution for recovery, and residual cobalt in propionaldehyde must be reduced below 0.5 ppm to prevent nickel hydrogenation catalyst fouling downstream. This route remains economically viable only where high-pressure equipment is already installed, low-cost syngas is available from coal or heavy-residue gasification, and cobalt recovery infrastructure is integrated. New n-propanol steam demands and maintenance burden of high-pressure oxo usually favour rhodium loops, but cobalt units still supply merchant propionaldehyde in regions with restricted precious-metal logistics.Fusel oil from methanol synthesis and ethanol fermentation contains n-propanol as a minor fraction, usually below 5 wt%, along with ethanol, isopropanol, isobutanol, and isoamyl alcohol. Distillation of fusel oil can yield n-propanol-enriched cuts, but close boiling points and multiple water azeotropes make the separation energy-intensive and sensitive to batch composition; this pathway is therefore a swing source and not a primary route. Glycerol hydrogenolysis to n-propanol has been reported over molybdenum-based and platinum-tungsten catalysts, but published data for commercial-scale operation is limited, and typical reports show selectivities above 80% only at glycerol conversions below 30%. Direct hydrogenation of propionic acid or propyl esters can produce n-propanol, but the route is economically constrained by acid feedstock cost. These alternative sequences do not affect the dominant industrial supply chain based on ethylene hydroformylation.Commercial n-propanol is supplied as a technical grade for coatings and chemical synthesis, a pharmaceutical grade for residual-solvent-controlled processing, and an electronic grade with low cation and anion content. Table 2 gives a representative high-purity bulk specification with standard test methods used on certificates of analysis. Analytical results are typically reported to three significant figures for assay, water, and acidity; electronic grades add inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry for sodium, potassium, iron, and chloride with limits below 10 ppb in the tightest supply contracts.PropertyTest methodRepresentative high-purity bulk limitGC assaySupplier GC-FID internal method99.8 area% minimumWaterASTM E2030.05 wt% maximumAcidity as propionic acidASTM D16130.005 wt% maximumColor Pt-CoASTM D120910 APHA maximumDistillation rangeASTM D107896.5–97.5 °CDensity at 20 °CASTM D40520.803–0.805 g/cm³Nonvolatile residueASTM D135310 mg/100 mL maximumStorage and loading are governed by flammability and oxidation sensitivity. n-Propanol is stored in 316L stainless steel or unlined carbon steel tanks with floating suction and nitrogen blanketing; copper, copper alloys, and galvanised steel are avoided because trace aldehyde and oxidation products under aerated conditions corrode these metals and introduce colour. Ambient storage above 30 °C increases vapour pressure and tank breathing losses; temperature-controlled tanks are specified for pharmaceutical and electronic grades. Transfer pumps use mechanical seals of EPDM or PTFE; nitrile and polyurethane elastomers swell in alcohol and lead to seal leakage. Loading lines are dried before use when relative humidity exceeds 60%, because moisture pickup of 0.01–0.03 wt% can occur during a single transfer in humid conditions. Peroxide formation is not universally required as a fresh-product test, but aged inventory exposed to air is tested before distillation or heating because peroxide accumulation is a recognised solvent-handling hazard. Practical storage duration for high-purity material is set by certificate-of-analysis retest intervals, commonly 12 months in sealed containers under nitrogen.Bulk distribution of n-propanol is controlled under UN 1274, Class 3 flammable liquid, and shipments are made in dedicated stainless steel tank trucks, ISO tank containers, or rail tank cars with relief valves and bottom loading. Quality agreements for pharmaceutical use reference ICH Q3C, in which n-propanol is classified as Class 3 with a permitted daily exposure of 50 mg/day. Regulatory compliance is anchored to REACH registration under EC 200-746-9, CLP Regulation 1272/2008, and ISO 9001:2015 supplier quality chains. FDA 21 CFR 172.515 lists n-propyl alcohol as a synthetic flavouring substance where food-contact exposure is controlled by end-use regulations. Certificates of analysis typically record GC assay, water by ASTM E203, acidity by ASTM D1613, color by ASTM D1209, distillation range by ASTM D1078, and density by ASTM D4052; load retain samples are kept for 24 months under supplier change-control obligations. The final technical obligation in a supply agreement is not purity alone but consistency: residual propionaldehyde in bulk n-propanol is maintained below 50 ppm for pharmaceutical solvent applications, below 10 ppm for electronic-grade material, and below 5 ppm for anhydrous high-purity contracts where aldehyde content is critical to downstream synthesis.

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